Financial Education

The value premium refers to the well-documented outperformance of value stocks (those with high book value relative to market value) over gorwth stocks (those with high market-book ratios.) This outperformance is not explained by systematic Beta as defined in the CAPM, though it does represent one of the three/four factors used in the Fama-French model.

In the March/April 2008 Financial Analysts Journal, Phalippou finds that the value premium is driven by stocks with low institutional ownership - a group that represents just 7% of the total stock market capitalization. Since individual investors may be less sophisticated than institutional investors, such stocks may have a higher tendency to be mispriced. The low institutional ownership may also signal that the mispricing opportunities are difficult to arbitrage.

In a strong-form efficient market no group of investors should be able to generate excess risk-adjusted returns. Technical analysis, fundamental analysis, and even inside information will provide little value once the information is known.

Tests of the strong form efficient market hypothesis have generally examined the performance of four groups of investors.

1. Corporate insiders
2. Stock exchange specialists
3. Security analysts
4. Professional money managers

Studies of insider buying and selling have provided mixed support for the EMH. At one time, insiders and public investors following insider trades experienced excess risk adjusted returns. However, more recent studies have indicated that public traders can no longer profit after adjusting for transaction costs.

Stock exchange specialists have monopolistic access to certain market data such as unfilled limit orders. Data suggests that specialists are able to earn excess risk-adjusted returns due to their access to this data.

There is some evidence that certain analysts may possess superior information, and that following the recommendations of these analysts may permit excess returns. Often these anomalies appear to be incorporated, which would support the EMH. For example, the Value Line timeliness rating was considered enigmatic as it appeared to consistently predict returns. However, changes in rating are now incorporated in stock prices within a day or two, and transaction costs may limit any usefulness of the anomaly.

In general, tests of professional investors have supported the EMH. On average, such investors do not enjoy superior risk-adjusted returns.

Buyout funds represent a significantly larger market segment within private equity compared to venture capital. Mega-cap buyout funds typically will take public companies private through a leveraged buyout. Mid-market funds will purchase private companies or divisions of larger companies.

Buyout funds add value by restructuring operations, by buying opportunistically when companies are selling at less than their intrinsic value, or by capturing gains by adding to or restructuring existing debt. They can realize these gains through a later public offering, selling the company to another buyer or by recapitalizing (borrowing and using the proceeds to pay a special dividend).

Buyout funds differ from venture capital funds in a number of ways:

• They are usually highly leveraged
• Cash flows to investors are typically more stable and start sooner
• Returns are not as subject to measurement error

Cash

Cash managers can earn higher returns by accepting longer-dated maturities or credit risk. The yield curve reflects the consensus expectation for future interest rates. Managers must distinguish between future events that are reflected in the yield curve adn those that will surprise the market.

Nominal Default Free Bonds

Conventional government bonds of developed countries have little or no default risk. Return can be disaggregated into real return and an inflation premium. The investor must compare his own forecast for inflation with that imbedded in the yield. If the investor believes inflation will be lower than expected, the bonds are a good buy.

Defaultable Debt

Default risk in commercial bonds is reflected in a premium yield relative to Treasuries. This spread tends to widen in recessions as economic stresses increase the likelihood of default. Understanding when a bond is pricing in greater default risk than is necessary can help determine whether securities are attractively priced.

Emerging Market Bonds

The sovereign debt of non-developed countries is often priced in foreign currencies. Since the issuer cannot print the money needed to cover repayment such bonds are subject to default risk, similar to corporate debt of similar ratings. A country risk analysis often involves an understanding of local politics.

Inflation Indexed Bonds

Inflation indexed bonds allow investors to directly observe the consensus inflation forecast by comparison with the yield of conventional bonds. The yield curve will still vary with the real economy and according to supply and demand. However, higher volatility of inflation will increase their hedging value and can result in lower real yields.

Common Stock

The economy affects earnings (cash flows) and interest rates in opposite directions. Trend growth depends on labor growth, investment and productivity while the business cycle affects profitability. In emerging economies, ex-post risk premia have been higher and more volatile than in developed countries.

Real Estate

Returns are affected by growth in consumption, real interest rates, the term structure of interest rates and unexpected inflation. Economic cycles can also affect the cost of building materials and construction labor, but the net effect of lower interest rates is positive for real estate valuations.

Currencies

Exchange rates reflect the balance between supply and demand. Imports increase currency supply, usually reducing its value. Capital flows for investment purposes, however, may outweigh the effect of trade imbalances. Differences between local interest rates can also affect exchange rates, as the higher yielding currencies attract capital and thus the currency value.

Historical averages incorporate many different types of economic environments, only some of which may be relevant to current conditions. One of the most important areas for investors to apply subjective judgment and insights is in “conditioning” historical data or choosing the periods that best reflect current conditions.

Even when using conditioned data, it is important for the analysis to incorporate any new facts that may be relevant to the decisions being made.

Over time, small capitalization stocks have been shown to outperform large-capitalization stocks. However, timing changes in the relative performance between the two groups could lead to still-better performance. In the Fall 2007 Journal of Portfolio Management, L’Her, Mouakhar and Roberge test three nonparametric techniques derived from artificial intelligence and using 20 macroeconomic and financial variables as inputs.

The three approaches are recursive partitioning, a neural network and a genetic algorithm.

Each of the three techniques outperforms a naive small-minus-big strategy, but the best results are derived from taking the consensus of the three techniques.

With the growth in the hedge fund industry has come a decline in the value added by hedge fund managers. Given the high fees typically charged by hedge funds, some have questioned whether passive approaches can be constructed that would provide returns similar to those of hedge funds while offering greater transparency and liquidity.

In the Winter 2007 Journal of Wealth Management Harry Kat discusses three general approaches to hedge fund replication:

• Factor Models
• Mechanical Trading Rules
• The author’s FundCreator product

In a factor model, linear regressions determine the market exposures experienced by a hedge fund or hedge fund index. Factors may include stock, bond, commodity and currency returns, or changes in credit spreads and market volatility. These exposures can then be taken via index products or derivative instruments.

In the case of funds that add value by timing short-term changes in market exposure, the investor’s trading behavior can be compared to mechanical trading rules.

The FundCreator product is a risk management tool that allows the investor to target the risk and correlation properties desired in order to maximize diversification potential.

Investment managers often have a fiduciary duty to their clients, which means their investment actions must consider the portfolio’s appropriateness in terms of:

1. the needs and circumstances of the client
2. the basic characteristics of an investment
3. the basic characteristics of the overall portfolio

Since each of these factors can change over time, fiduciary duty requires actively monitoring each using a systematic process.

The quoted bid/ask spread is the difference between the lowest ask price for a security and the highest bid price. For small orders, the quoted spread is a good indication of the execution cost for a trade. For large orders, however, it may not fully represent the cost.

The effective spread better captures the cost of a round-trip order by including both price movement (dealers coming in to execute orders at a better price than previously quoted) and market impact (spread widening due to the size of the order itself.)

Effective spread is defined as twice the difference between the actual execution price and the market quote at the time of order entry. For example, an order is entered when the quote is $10.00/$10.20. The order is executed at $10.15. The effective spread is 2(10.15 - 10.10) = $0.10.

Formative stage companies and privately held companies often have limited access to capital. Start-ups often need capital to fund research or obtain office space before they have generated any revenue. Other companies may need capital in order to expand operations.

Venture capital can be supplied by Angel investors (accredited investors who supply small amounts of seed or early-stage capital), venture capitalists (who manage pooled capital and also offer companies financial and management support) or large companies who want to become strategic partners.

Financial needs for private companies typically go through several stages:

1. Early stage financing
   • Seed capital - small amounts of money used to form the company and prove the idea
   • Start-up - pre-revenue commercialization of a product
   • First stage - additional funds that may be needed, and which are typically supplied only when conditions warrant
2. Later-stage financing offers funds to promising companies that need to expand their operations
3. Exit stage
   • Acquisition by a larger company
   • Merger with another company
   • Initial public offering (IPO)